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question:LECTURE 9 THE SENTENCE AND THE UTTERANCE 1. Main characteristics of the sentence For most linguists, in most circumstances, a sentence is an abstract linguistic object: specifically it is a linguistic object put together entirely in accordance with the rules for constructing sentences in a language, rules which have to be identified in a linguistic description by thorough investigation. More particularly, a sentence does not have to be something which somebody might say or write, and not everything that we might say or write is a sentence. On the other hand, a linguistic unit may be treated as a sentence only on the basis of some formal characteristics. Generally speaking, it is rather difficult to define the sentence as it is connected with many lingual and extra lingual aspects — logical, psychological and philosophical. According to Professor G. Pocheptsov, the sentence is the central syntactic construction used as the minimal communicative unit that has its primary predication, actualizes a definite structural scheme and possesses definite intonation characteristics. This definition, however, works only in case we do not take into account the difference between the sentence and the utterance. The distinction between the sentence and the utterance is of fundamental importance because the sentence is an abstract theoretical entity defined within the theory of grammar while the utterance is the actual use of the sentence. In other words, the sentence is a unit of language and the utterance is a unit of speech. Different approaches to the study of the sentence a) Traditional analysis. In accordance with the traditional syntactic analysis, principal and secondary parts of the sentence are defined. The words in the sentence are analyzed depending on the syntactic functions they perform into subject, predicate (principal parts), and object, attribute and adverbial modifier (secondary parts). b) IС analysis. Immediate constituents of the sentence. To grasp the real structure of the English sentence, one must understand not only words that occur but also the principles of their arrangement. Each language has its own way of structural grouping. English has dichotomous phrase structure, which means that the phrase in English can always be divided into two elements (constituents) until we get down to the single word. All groups of words are arranged in levels. The name given by linguists to these different levels of relationship is immediate constituents, the analysis was called IС analysis. Thus, one way of analyzing a sentence is to cut it to its immediate constituents, that is, to single out different levels of meaning. Oppositional analysis. The oppositional analysis is based on the principle of privative oppositions. One of its possible applications in syntax is to describe different sentence types and variants of one and the same sentence. The oppositional method in syntax is applied to describe different simple sentence types: they possess common features and differential features. Differential features serve the basis for analysis. The rules are as follows: Different sentence types are those that cannot be substituted for each other without changing the structural meaning of the sentence. a) Distributional analysis. Distribution is a set of positions in which a given linguistic unit or form can appear in language. Any given linguistic element which is present in a language, whether a speech sound, a phoneme, a word, or whatever, can occur in certain positions but not in other positions. A statement of its possible positions is its distribution, and this distribution is usually an important fact about its place in the language. For example, distribution is important for identifying parts of speech. Constructional analysis. Syntactic processes. According to the constructional approach, not only the subject and the predicate but also all the necessary constituents of primary predication constitute the main parts because they are constructionally significant, in other words, necessary for the structural sentence pattern. It follows that sometimes the secondary parts of the sentence are as necessary and important as the main ones. It is based on the assumption that every sentence is a syntactical construction, that is, it is built on the basis of a structural kernel pattern. The smallest syntactical construction which can be obtained by omitting all optional elements of the sentence is called "kernel" or "elementary" sentence. 3. The utterance. Communicative types of utterances Utterance may be defined as a particular piece of speech produced by a particular individual on a particular occasion. In linguistics, a sentence is an abstract linguistic object forming one part of the total expressive resources of a given language. When we speak, therefore, we do not strictly produce sentences: instead, we produce utterances. An utterance is a single piece of speech marked off as a unit in some way: for example, by pauses and intonation. From the viewpoint of their role in the process of communication utterances are divided into four communicative types: declarative (statements), interrogative (questions), imperative (requests or commands) and exclamatory (they express various emotions, such as joy, anger, surprise, sorrow, etc.). Based on this text provide the answers to the questions: 1. Main characteristics of the sentence. 2. Different approaches to the study of the sentence. 3. Classifications of simple sentences 4. The utterance. Communicative types of utterances.
answer:1. The main characteristics of the sentence include being an abstract linguistic object constructed according to the rules of a specific language, not necessarily something that someone says or writes, and not all spoken or written language is a sentence. It has a specific structure, intonation characteristics, and is a unit of language. 2. Different approaches to the study of the sentence include traditional analysis, which focuses on identifying principal and secondary parts of the sentence based on syntactic functions; IC analysis, which involves analyzing the immediate constituents of a sentence to understand its structure; oppositional analysis, which uses privative oppositions to describe different sentence types; distributional analysis, which examines the positions where linguistic units can appear in a language; and constructional analysis, which considers both main and secondary parts of a sentence as important and structural. 3. Classifications of simple sentences can be based on their common and differential features. Different sentence types cannot be substituted for each other without changing the structural meaning of the sentence. 4. The utterance refers to a specific piece of speech produced by an individual on a specific occasion. Utterances are not strict sentences, but they are marked off as units by pauses and intonation. Communicative types of utterances include declarative statements, interrogative questions, imperative requests or commands, and exclamatory expressions of emotions.
question:4. Informative structure of the utterance The main categories of the utterance from the point of view of its informative structure are considered to be the theme and the rheme. They are the main components of the Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) — actual division of the sentence (most language analysts stick to the term "sentence" but in fact they mean "utterance"). In modern linguistics, the term "comment" is used instead of "theme" and "topic" — instead of "rheme". In English, there is a "standard" word order of Subject + Verb + Object. However, there are numerous other ways in which the semantic content of the sentence can be expressed. Which of these options is actually selected by the writer or the speaker will depend on the context in which the utterance occurs and the importance of the information. One important consideration is whether the information has already been introduced before or it is assumed to be known to the reader or listener. Such information is referred to as given information or the theme. It contrasts with information which is introduced for the first time and which is known as new information or the rheme. The informative structure of the utterance is one of the topics that still attract the attention of language analysts nowadays. Based on this text provide the answers to the questions: Informative structure of the utterance.
answer:The informative structure of the utterance refers to the organization and arrangement of information within a sentence or statement. It consists of two main components: the theme and the rheme. The theme is the given information or the part of the utterance that is assumed to be known or previously introduced. It sets the context for the new information that follows. The rheme, on the other hand, is the new information or the part of the utterance that introduces something for the first time. It provides the main focus or point of the utterance. In modern linguistics, the terms "comment" and "topic" are often used interchangeably with theme and rheme. The choice of word order, such as the standard Subject - Verb - Object order in English, can vary depending on the context and the importance of the information being conveyed. The informative structure of the utterance is an ongoing topic of interest and study for language analysts. It explores how information is structured and organized within a sentence to effectively convey meaning.
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answer:Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on studying mental processes, such as attention, memory, perception, reasoning, and problem-solving. It explores how individuals perceive, think, remember, and communicate information. Cognitive psychologists are interested in understanding how people acquire and process information, and how these mental processes influence behavior. They use a variety of research methods, including experiments and observation, to investigate cognitive processes. The findings from cognitive psychology research can be applied to many areas, such as education, clinical psychology, and artificial intelligence.
question:Cryptogrammen oplossen, daar gaat deze vraag over. Ik geef enkele voorbeelden van een cryptische omschrijving met bijbehorende oplossing, in de vorm van het volgende format {cryptische omschrijving, bijbehorende oplossing}. Ik geef 2 voorbeelden daarvan: {"(Hoe heet) het hondje van de pyromaan?", "Fikkie"} en {"Beleggings instrument", "Boterham"}. Beantwoord de volgende vragen: 1 - beredeneer en omschrijf via welke denkstappen hoe uit de cryptische omschrijving de bijbehorende oplossing kan worden afgeleid. Doe dat zo gedetailleerd mogelijk; 2 - bedenk daarna zelf 5 nieuwe voorbeelden, die niet hetzelfde mogen zijn als die ik al gegeven heb. Denk stap voor stap, het is zeer belangrijk.
answer:1 - Uitleg over de denkstappen: Voorbeeld 1: "(Hoe heet) het hondje van de pyromaan?", "Fikkie" - Het woord "heet" in de vraag doelt zowel op de vraag naar een naam als op de toestand van warmte of vuur. - "Het hondje van de pyromaan" refereert naar een hond die metaforisch gezien aan een persoon gekoppeld is die vuur (pyromaan) belangrijk vindt. - Het hondje zou dus een naam hebben die gerelateerd is aan vuur. "Fikkie" is de naam die in het Nederlands vaak wordt gebruikt voor hondjes en spreektaal is voor een klein vuur of vlammetje, vandaar dat dit een geschikt antwoord is op de cryptische vraag. Voorbeeld 2: "Beleggings instrument", "Boterham" - Het woord "beleggings" kan twee betekenissen hebben: financieel beleggen of iets dat op brood gelegd wordt. - "Instrument" suggereert een middel of een gereedschap. - De cryptische omschrijving speelt met de dubbele betekenis van het woord "beleggings". In plaats van de financiële context, betreft het hier een woordgrap waarbij het om beleg op brood gaat. - "Boterham" is een voorwerp waarop beleg wordt gelegd en maakt zo de woordspeling rond. 2 - Nieuwe voorbeelden: - {"Een plek voor de klok wanneer het slecht weer is", "Schuilplaats"} - De vraag suggereert dat een klok ergens moet zijn als het weer slecht is. - Slecht weer impliceert dat men moet schuilen. - Een "schuilplaats" is waar je heen zou gaan tijdens slecht weer, en speelt ook in op de term schuil in 'Schuilen voor de regen'. Dit maakt het tot een cryptische omschrijving. - {"Een huis voor dieren of een feestje in de tuin", "Bijenkorf"} - "Een huis voor dieren" verwijst naar de verblijfplaats van een type dier. - Een "feestje in de tuin" kan cryptisch refereren aan de drukte of het zoemende geluid dat met feestjes en groepen wordt geassocieerd. - "Bijenkorf" is daadwerkelijk het huis van bijen en brengt het beeld van een zoemend, druk feestje over, dat de dubbele betekenis vangt. - {"Een drankje voor de kat", "Melk"} - De vraag impliceert hier dat het om een soort drank gaat die specifiek bij katten past. - "Melk" wordt traditioneel geassocieerd met katten, omdat het vaak als een typisch drankje voor hen wordt gezien. - {"Aardige loper", "Tapijt"} - "Aardige loper" kan geïnterpreteerd worden als iemand die goed kan hardlopen, of in dit geval iets dat met lopen te maken heeft. - "Tapijt" is iets waarover je loopt en kan ook 'aardig' of prettig zijn voor de voeten, en heeft een dubbele betekenis als 'loopoppervlak'. - {"Voor deze muziekliefhebber hoef je de deur niet uit", "Thuisbioscoop"} - De uitdrukking suggereert een plaats of een middel om van muziek te genieten zonder naar buiten te hoeven. - Een "Thuisbioscoop" wordt gebruikt voor het bekijken van films (vaak gepaard met muziek) in het comfort van je eigen huis. De grap zit hem hier in het feit dat 'bioscoop' vaak buitenhuis is, terwijl 'thuisbioscoop' dit binnen de deur brengt.